Saturday, January 26, 2013

Make your Site with Free hosting


Free Hosting

Unlimited Bandwidth
Unlimited Webspace
Domain Hosting
PHP, FTP
Price: FREE!

there Free Web Hosting Package contains the following features:
Unlimited Data Transfer
Unlimited Disk Space
100mbps Network Connection
99.9% Uptime
Free Sub Directory ( hostultra.com/~you )
Cool yourname.vzz.net URL!
Free Subdomains ( Many domains to choose from! )
Free Domain Hosting ( yourdomain.com )
Custom Domain DNS Control ( A/CNAME/MX Records )
Browser and FTP Uploading
PHP / MySQL*
Unlimited Domains / Unlimited Subdomains
Free Search Engine Submission

http://www.hostultra.com/signup.html

Web hosting Mail, FTP, CGI, Perl, SSI, PHP, ASP (FrontPage), MySQL, CPanel, and many, many more. You really will be your own webmaster. Our thoughtful and patient staff will guide you. Forums for when you seek the help of your peers. Emergency contacts for when you need concentrated one-on-one help.

What's the catch? There isn't one. PortalWorlds.NET is advertising and sponsor supported. Your site will show ads (your choice as to placement, side towers, top banners, popups, and similar) and earn money to cover PortalWorlds.NET's server and administrative costs. You do agree to do nothing offensive nor illegal.

In addition to the many things mentioned, you will also receive a Script Center (crammed with ready to use Perl), 100M diskspace, 250M bandwidth, 1 MySQL database, unlimited POP3 mailboxes (including autoresponders and forwarders), 1 mail list, Oscommerce package, PHP-Nuke, Invision Board, full CPanel.

.www.portalworlds.net thank "agresssor" for this one

GreatNow
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME,OTHER
http://www.greatnow.com/

Space 100 MB
Upload FTP Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads Banner/Popup
Webaddress Subdomain
Features Domainhosting Subdomain Counter Form Guestbook

Web hosting Beige Tower
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME,OTHER
http://beigetower.org

Space 100 MB
Upload FTP
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads No ads
Webaddress domain
Features PHP POP Email Domainhosting Telnet mySQL SSI CGI-BIN Guestbook

Comet Stream
Canada, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME,OTHER
http://www.cometstream.net

Space 50 MB
Upload FTP Browser FrontPage
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads No ads
Webaddress Subdomain, Domain
Features PHP POP Email Domainhosting Subdomain mySQL SSI CGI-BIN Shopping Cart Counter Form Guestbook

1ASPHost
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME
http://www.1asphost.com

Space 100 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced
Ads Popup
Webaddress /you
Features ASP SSI

Alexus Media
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME,OTHER
http://www.alexusmedia.com

Space 999 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads Popup
Webaddress directory
Features RealVideo RealAudio ASP SSI Guestbook

Angel Towns
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS
http://www.angeltowns.com

Space 50 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads No ads
Webaddress /members/you
Features Guestbook

Brinkster
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME
http://www.brinkster.com

Space 30 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced
Ads Bannerad
Webaddress /you
Features mySQL ASP

Web hosting FreeWebz.com
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS
http://members.freewebz.com

Space 100 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads No ads
Webaddress /you
Features POP Email Domainhosting SSI Shopping Cart Counter Form Guestbook

Illusionfxnet
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,OTHER
http://www.illusionfxnet.com

Space 250 MB
Upload Browser Email
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads No ads
Webaddress Subdomain and Domain
Features PHP POP Email Domainhosting Subdomain Telnet mySQL SSI CGI-BIN Shopping Cart Counter Form Guestbook

Internations
USA, English
Hosting category: REG
http://www.internations.net

Space 100 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads Topbanner
Webaddress /area/you
Features Form Guestbook

Snake INC
USA, English
Hosting category: REG
http://snake-inc.com

Space 100 MB
Upload FTP Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads Banner + text
Webaddress Subdomain
Features PHP POP Email Domainhosting Subdomain mySQL SSI Counter Form Guestbook

Sphosting.com
USA, English
Hosting category: REG
http://www.sphosting.com/

Space 35 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Advanced Basic
Ads Pop-under
Webaddress Subdomain
Features Subdomain SSI Form Guestbook

Totalfreehost
USA, English
Hosting category: REG
http://www.totalfreehost.com

Space 50 MB
Upload FTP Email
Editor
Ads No ads
Webaddress Domain
Features PHP Domainhosting mySQL CGI-BIN

USALL
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME
http://www.webhosting.usallportal.com/free_webhosting.htm

Space 3000 MB
Upload Browser
Editor Basic
Ads Banner
Webaddress /members/you
Features Form

Web1000
USA, English
Hosting category: REG
http://www.web1000.com

Web hosting Space 50 MB
Upload FTP
Editor Advanced
Ads No ads
Webaddress Subdomain
Features PHP POP Email Domainhosting Subdomain SSI Counter Guestbook

webspace4free.biz
USA, English
Hosting category: REG,BUSINESS,GAME
http://www.webspace4free.biz/?lang=english

http://nexuswebs.net
*new website just launched seems quite successful*
Space 200 MB
Upload Browser
Editor
Ads No ads
Webaddress Subdomain
Features PHP Domainhosting Subdomain mySQL CGI-BIN
NO Banner Advertisements
35mb Disk Space
Free Webmail Account
Free Subdomain - (yourname.nexuswebs.net)
Online Website Builder
Multi-Platform Template Editor
Website Template Library
24/7 FTP Access
Online File Manager
Email Virus Protection
Spam Filters
Message Board
Guest Book
Site Counter

http://www.tripod.lycos.nl/myaccount/freehosting/
50 MB webspace
NO Filesize limit
NO monthly transfer limit
PHP4.1 / MySQL (phpmyadmin) / counter / guesbook / personalised cgi feedback froms / customisable 404 error pages / FTP access

Web hosting http://www.freeweb-hosting.com/
Q.Which files are accepted?
A.Currently we support standard html and images files, which means .htm, .html, .pdf, .gif, .jpg ,.png , .js, .css, .swf, .mid, .jar and .class. The size of your individual files should be < 85kb. Files exceeding this size will get automatically deleted. Besides that, there's no limit on the number of files you can host in your account.

Provider: DK3
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.dk3.com</font></b></font>
Max file size: 400KB (I agree this sucks)
Comments: The following things are supported, FTP, MySQL, PHP, Perl, SSI, WAP. Plus pre-made portal and forum are available free.
*Update*

Provider:Free Web Hosting
Service: 100 Megs of webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.freewebsitehosting.com/</font></b></font>
Summary:100 Megs Of Webspace, Free Site Promotion,FTP Support,Free Stats and Site Tools,
Unlimited Bandwidth,Free Guestbook, Fast and Reliable Servers,and Front Page Extensions.

Provider: Free Webs
Service: 100 Megs of space
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://members.freewebz.com/</font></b></font>
Summary: 100 megs of space, No banners of popups,Web Page Editing and HTML editing,FreeWebs Builder,
Site stats, Chatrooms,Guestbook, Counters, Site promotion, Form builder/Mailer, Photoalbums and more.

Provider: USALLportal
Service: 3 gigs of space
URL:http://www.webhosting.usallportal.com/free_webhosting.htm
Summary: 3 gigs of space! What else is there to know.

Provider:3hosting
Service: Unlimited Space
URL:http://www.3hosting.info/
Summary: Free hosting for adult sites, FTP access, Unlimited size of sites, Unlimited traffic, Quick Internet connection, TGP compatibility,
Free hosting of your domain.

Provider: HostUltra
Service: Unlimited space
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.hostultra.com/</font></b></font>
Summary: Unlimited Data Transfer
Unlimited Disk Space, 100mbps Network Connection, 99.9% Uptime, Free Sub Directory,
Free Domain Hosting, Custom Domain DNS Control, Browser and FTP Uploading,PHP,
Hosting for Unlimited Domains w/ Unlimited Subdomains, Free Search Engine Submission,
and NO ADS ON PAGES!

Provider:Crosswinds
Service: Unlimited webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.crosswinds.net/</font></b></font>
Summary: Unlimited WebSpace, Web Based Email, Popups, $1 Premium Referral Reward, and more.

Provider:1AspHost
Service:100 Mb space
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.1asphost.com/</font></b></font>
Summary:100 MB of Web Space, Unlimited Bandwidth, Instant Account Activation,
Online Control Panel, Online Zip/Unzip Capability, Active Server Pages Version 3.0,
MS Access Database Connectivity.

Provider:Eccentrix
Service: 50 Mb space
URL:http://eccentrix.com/
Summary: 50 MB Web Space,<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> WWW Board,</font></b></font> Guest Book, Form Mail, WYSIWYG Web Editor,
Excellent Support, and more.

Provider: Neopages
Service: 50 Mb space
URL:http://www.neopages.net/
Summary: 50 Mb space, Unlimited bandwidth, POP E-Mail, True FTP Accounts ,
Site Admin Control Panel,

Provider: Internations Global Web Services
Service: 100 Mb space
URL:http://www.internations.net/
Summary: 100 Mb space, 1 GB bandwith, Web Message board, Guestbook,
FormMail script and more.

Provider: I12
Service: 800 Mb space
URL:http://www.i12.com/
Summary: 800 Mb space, unlimited POP3 and alias email addresses,
definetly a site to check out!

Provider: Nerd Cities
Service: 100 Mb space
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.nerdcities.com/</font></b></font>
Summary:100 Megabytes Web Space, GuestBook+Counters, Full Technical Support,
Unlimited File Size Web Control Panel, No Bandwidth Limits And more!

Provider: DK3
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.dk3.com</font></b></font>
Max file size: 400KB (I agree this sucks)
Comments: The following things are supported, FTP, MySQL, PHP, Perl, SSI, WAP. Plus pre-made portal and forum are available free.

http://www.freeweb-hosting.com/
-You have UNLIMITED disk space and bandwidth with your site!.
-You can only upload files with .html, .htm, .jpg, .gif, .css, .js, .png, .pdf
file name extensions.
-Size of every file could not large than 85K bytes.

http://www.zoomfast.com/
->How much space do I get?
-Unlimited
->How can I upload my files?
-We offer full FTP access. The best FTP client can be found here.
->Can I use PHP or CGI?
-No.
->Can I host movies?
-No.
->Can I have my pages in non-english language?
-No.
->What is the maximum number of files?
-Unlimited.
->What is the maximum file size?
-80KB

->http://www.yoogo.com/
site for sale

->http://www.worldzone.net
Worldzone Free - 50mb space, allowed file types (au, mid, midi, wav, gif, ico, jpg, jpeg, png, htm, html, shtml, wml, xml, css, class, jar, java, dat, txt, tmpl, htaccess, htpasswd, js, map, swf, ttf). Sorry but no cgi, ftp, MySQL on our Free accounts. 1 468x60 banner will be located on the bottom of your page but can be removed in our $12 yearly Plus Package.

->http://www.web1000.com/
50 mb space

->http://www.tripod.com
20 MB of disk space – Have room for your image files, MP3s, video clips.
1 GB of Monthly Bandwidth – More people can visit your site more often

-><font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.simplycities.com</font></b></font>
page don't load

->http://www.qwikpages.com
now it's freecoolpages.com
10MB OF DISK SPACE
UNLIMITED BANDWIDTH
FTP ACCESS FOR UPLOADING
FREE EMAIL

->http://www.netomia.com
60 mb of space!
Your website may not contain or refer to sites with the following content: Porn, warez, hack or anything encouraging any kind of illegal activities or racism.

->www.netcolony.com
25 megs of webspace
Easy homepage creator
Unlimited bandwidth
Your own messageboard
Templates
Free Guestbook
Advanced editor
No fees - 100% FREE!
Fast servers

Provider:POHost
Service: Unlimited Disk Space
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.pohost.com/</font></b></font>
Summary: Unlimited disk space, Unlimited transfers, Fast servers,Real FTP Uploads,
Domain name hosting TGP Compliant, and more.

Provider:Free Web Hosting
Service: Unlimited Disk space
URL:http://www.freeweb-hosting.com/
Summary:Unlimited disk space,Unlimited transfers, FAST Servers ,Domain Hosting,
24/7 Real FTP Access,Friendly Support, Web Email, FREE Web Promotion.

Provider: Zoom Fast
Service: Unlimited Space
URL:http://www.zoomfast.com/
Summary: Unlimited space,Unlimited bandwith, High speed servers and more

URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.yoogo.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Offering a great 50 MB of space plus other features like Email Forms, Guestbooks and even Message Boards. Funny name I'm sure you will agree yet worth a look because of the nice amount of space!

Web hosting Provider: Worldzone.net
Service: 100 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.worldzone.net</font></b></font>
Summary: Offering a fantasic 100 MB why not give them a go! They do not accept Warze & Porn sites so dont try to host your page here if you plan to run such a page. However, because of the amount of space they are offering then would make for a great place to dump your files!

Provider: WebJump
Service: 25 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.webjump.com</font></b></font>
Summary: WebJump is another Small Business Provider offer a huge 25 MB for your website and unlimited bandwidth! Unlike B-City.com WebJump support the use of FTP Updates along with the use of Flash, JavaScript, WAV Files and other things as well. If you like using Email please note WebJump at this time do not offer either POP or Web Based Email Services

Provider: Web1000
Service: 25 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.web1000.com</font></b></font>
Summary: N/A

Provider: Tripod
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.tripod.com</font></b></font>
Summary: N/A

Provider: Spree.com
Service: Unlimited Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.spree.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Offering counters, builders, uploaders, HTML guide and a unlimited MB account spree.com could be a great place for junk files. If your running a Warze related website, try these guys out and tell me what you think!

Provider: SimplyCities
Service: 30 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.simplycities.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Simplycities.com have just had a change in servers hence speed should be and better be at an all time high. On the website they claim to offer Unlimited Bandwidth yet at the end of that they have a little * displaying the fact conditions apply yet we could not find on the page details of this!?! Anyway they could be worth a look if just starting out!

Provider: Server2000.at
Service: Unlimited Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.server2000.at</font></b></font>
Summary: Only problem with this is it's not english.

Provider: Qwik Pages
Service: 100 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.qwikpages.com</font></b></font>
Summary: N/A

Provider: Netomia
Service: 60 MB Webspace, Online Editor, Counter, Form Mail, Guestbook
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.netomia.com</font></b></font>
Summary: One of the few providers offering such huge space limits with a string of other great features need for any good website!

Provider: JustFree.com
Service: 40 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.justfree.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Offering 40 MB and no bandwidth limit this should be a good choice in web hosting. They also offer free forums, live support, free guestbook & soon Free Email! We have been unable to test this provider 100% hence comments are welcome!

Provider: InfoCache
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.infocache.com</font></b></font>
Summary: InfoCache offers a fantastic 50 MB of webspace which is great for any small business or personal website. They are now begining to offer Free Email and also offer a range of "pay" service which are very cheap compared to some providers. Worth a look just for the space!

Provider: FreeHomePages
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.freehomepages.com</font></b></font>
Summary: They claim fast and stable server with offers of chat, form mailer, guestbooks, page builders, unlimited bandwith & unlimited hits to get the visitors in and when they offer this much space why not go for them!

Provider: Dynahost.net
Service: 25 MB Webspace [ 100 MB After Approval ]
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.dynahost.net</font></b></font>
Summary: Providing a nice amount of space with the option of increasing to 100 MB unlike most providers. Dynahost accounts also come with forums & a guestbook which is all updated able via your Web Browser!

Provider: Dreamwater
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.dreamwater.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Offer 50 MB, Guestbook, Chat, Form Mailer, Web Templates, Builder, Clip Art, Search Submissions, Subdomain & Short URL, Unlimited Band * no hit limit! Because they offer so much we think they could have a large number of member hence a slow service yet you should test them for yourself

Provider: Dencity
Service: 25 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.dencity.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Dencity is a well known provider offering a great 25 MB which is fantastic for any small user. They also offer a range of tools for its members plus a listing of HTML Code to help you along!

Web hosting Provider: Atmosphere.be
Service: Webspace [Unlimited?] & 5 MB Email
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.atmosphere.be</font></b></font>
Summary: No Information

Provider: AFreeHome.com
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.afreehome.com</font></b></font>
Summary: AFreeHome.com make out (in a round-about way) they hate Geocities.com! With the huge space they offer and no bandwidth limit they could be one of the best providers to date! They also claim to pay you US$10 for people you get to Sign Up yet this seems a little funny we think. Anyway - try them and inform us of how good/bad they are.

Provider: Above World
Service: 25 MB Webspace [Possible 60 MB of space]
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.aboveworld.com</font></b></font>
Summary: Above World claim to offer a 100% Free Virtual Domain along with 25 MB of webspace plus chat board and guestbook! When checking the above details on the Above World Website they listed via text they offer 25 MB yet a visible banner said 60 MB. We can provide no further information.

Provider: 50megs
Service: 50 MB Webspace
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.50megs.com</font></b></font>
Summary: 50megs.com is only one of a few providers offering such huge amounts of webspace for free. It comes with other services like Web Polls, counters and much more.

Provider: 00server
Service: 20 MB Webspace [Short URL Provided]
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://www.00server.com</font></b></font>
Summary: 00server offers a wide range of domains to suite most styles of websites. Along with the short domain names you get a fantastic 20 MB for your website. Known for its fast service yet the banner is always a down side to any provider!

Provider: 1and1
Service: 500 MB web space
5,000 MB/month traffic ($.99 per GB for additional traffic)
site statistics, log files, ready-to-run CGI-library, own CGI programming (Perl, Python), FrontPage 2002 extensions
Advanced Password Protection
5 FTP accounts
Web hosting PHP3 & PHP4 MySQL
Proxy SSL Secure Server
Cron Jobs
SSH Secure Shell Access
URL:<font color=#3A4F6C><font color=#3A4F6C><b> http://order.1and1.com/</font></b></font>
Periodical time limited offers

PunoSoft Mail:
http://www.punosoft.com:32000/mail
-You can check email via website, OR I can give you the details on how to configure Outlook or Outlook Express for mail retrieval/send.
PunoSoft Gallery:
http://www.punosoft.com/gallery
-Great for sharing photos or "Signatures".
-Sign Up and I'll send you details on how to upload your photos and how to access them.

PunoSoft Web Host:

http://www.punosoft.com/webhost

125MB Hosting Service - http://www.125mb.com

XAXAX FREE HOSTING - http://free.xaxax.com

FREE HOSTiNG @ HOSTARS - http://hostars.com

CyberFreeHost - http://www.cyberfreehost.com

ULTRA FREE HOST - http://www.ultrafreehost.com

20forfree.com :: Free Web Hosting - http://www.20forfree.com

HentaiRack.com :: FREE HEntai Web Hosting - http://www.hentairack.com

EZ SEX HOST Free Adult Hosting - http://www.ezsexhost.com


Web hosting

Hacking Tips about Free Access To Websites Without Registering


Free Access To Websites Without Registering:

Go to

-http://bugmenot.com/

and type the URL of the website you want to log into.
Examples:

-http://www.nytimes.com/, -http://www.winnetmag.com/
etcetera.

Another (and better) way is changing the user agent of your browser to:
Googlebot/2.1+

-http://www.googlebot.com/bot.html

This is very easy in Mozilla's Firefox. Download and install the User Agent Switcher from

-http://www.chrispederick.com/work/firefox/useragentswitcher/
and add the Googlebot user agent.

Have fun, Dead Dreamer!

 Now this was just browsing entire forum without even needing to login to view restricted areas, and it works on other sites
And no, you cant access the hidden forums either, already tried that
Web hosting

Friday, January 25, 2013

Hacking Tips about BURNING X-BOX & GAMECUBE GAMES USEING CDRWIN


 BURNING X-BOX & GAMECUBE GAMES USEING CDRWIN
------------------------------------------------------
1) Insert your original in your CD-ROM.
2) Open CDRWin (or any other image extractor) to make an iso image of the game
on your hard disc. Click on 'Extract Disc/Tracks/Sectors'
3) Here are the settings which work for me (!):
Disc Image/Cue sheet
File-Format: Automatic
Reading-Options:
RAW, CD+G, CD-TEXT and MCN/USRC all Unchecked
Error Recovery: Ignore
Jitter Correction: Auto
Subcode Analyses: Fixed
Data-Speed: MAX
Read Retry Count: 10
Audio Speed: MAX
Subcode Threshold: 900
There are a lot of reports, that Raw reading also works, but I had problems with it enabled.
4) Click on 'Start'
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RECORDING TO A DISC
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1) Install Fireburner

2) Double click on the Cue File For The Game
3) Right Click And select burn To CD
That?s all there is record DAO, and you can try to burn it fast at 2X
Using PNY Black Diamond CDR'

Hacking Tips about BandWidth Explained


This is well written explanation about bandwidth, very useful info.

BandWidth Explained:

Most hosting companies offer a variety of bandwidth options in their plans. So exactly what is bandwidth as it relates to web hosting? Put simply, bandwidth is the amount of traffic that is allowed to occur between your web site and the rest of the internet. The amount of bandwidth a hosting company can provide is determined by their network connections, both internal to their data center and external to the public internet.


Network Connectivity:

The internet, in the most simplest of terms, is a group of millions of computers connected by networks. These connections within the internet can be large or small depending upon the cabling and equipment that is used at a particular internet location. It is the size of each network connection that determines how much bandwidth is available. For example, if you use a DSL connection to connect to the internet, you have 1.54 Mega bits (Mb) of bandwidth. Bandwidth therefore is measured in bits (a single 0 or 1). Bits are grouped in bytes which form words, text, and other information that is transferred between your computer and the internet.

If you have a DSL connection to the internet, you have dedicated bandwidth between your computer and your internet provider. But your internet provider may have thousands of DSL connections to their location. All of these connection aggregate at your internet provider who then has their own dedicated connection to the internet (or multiple connections) which is much larger than your single connection. They must have enough bandwidth to serve your computing needs as well as all of their other customers. So while you have a 1.54Mb connection to your internet provider, your internet provider may have a 255Mb connection to the internet so it can accommodate your needs and up to 166 other users (255/1.54).


Traffic:

A very simple analogy to use to understand bandwidth and traffic is to think of highways and cars. Bandwidth is the number of lanes on the highway and traffic is the number of cars on the highway. If you are the only car on a highway, you can travel very quickly. If you are stuck in the middle of rush hour, you may travel very slowly since all of the lanes are being used up.

Traffic is simply the number of bits that are transferred on network connections. It is easiest to understand traffic using examples. One Gigabyte is 2 to the 30th power (1,073,741,824) bytes. One gigabyte is equal to 1,024 megabytes. To put this in perspective, it takes one byte to store one character. Imagine 100 file cabinets in a building, each of these cabinets holds 1000 folders. Each folder has 100 papers. Each paper contains 100 characters - A GB is all the characters in the building. An MP3 song is about 4MB, the same song in wav format is about 40MB, a full length movie can be 800MB to 1000MB (1000MB = 1GB).

If you were to transfer this MP3 song from a web site to your computer, you would create 4MB of traffic between the web site you are downloading from and your computer. Depending upon the network connection between the web site and the internet, the transfer may occur very quickly, or it could take time if other people are also downloading files at the same time. If, for example, the web site you download from has a 10MB connection to the internet, and you are the only person accessing that web site to download your MP3, your 4MB file will be the only traffic on that web site. However, if three people are all downloading that same MP at the same time, 12MB (3 x 4MB) of traffic has been created. Because in this example, the host only has 10MB of bandwidth, someone will have to wait. The network equipment at the hosting company will cycle through each person downloading the file and transfer a small portion at a time so each person's file transfer can take place, but the transfer for everyone downloading the file will be slower. If 100 people all came to the site and downloaded the MP3 at the same time, the transfers would be extremely slow. If the host wanted to decrease the time it took to download files simultaneously, it could increase the bandwidth of their internet connection (at a cost due to upgrading equipment).


Hosting Bandwidth:

In the example above, we discussed traffic in terms of downloading an MP3 file. However, each time you visit a web site, you are creating traffic, because in order to view that web page on your computer, the web page is first downloaded to your computer (between the web site and you) which is then displayed using your browser software (Internet Explorer, Netscape, etc.) . The page itself is simply a file that creates traffic just like the MP3 file in the example above (however, a web page is usually much smaller than a music file).

A web page may be very small or large depending upon the amount of text and the number and quality of images integrated within the web page. For example, the home page for CNN.com is about 200KB (200 Kilobytes = 200,000 bytes = 1,600,000 bits). This is typically large for a web page. In comparison, Yahoo's home page is about 70KB.


How Much Bandwidth Is Enough?

It depends (don't you hate that answer). But in truth, it does. Since bandwidth is a significant determinant of hosting plan prices, you should take time to determine just how much is right for you. Almost all hosting plans have bandwidth requirements measured in months, so you need to estimate the amount of bandwidth that will be required by your site on a monthly basis

If you do not intend to provide file download capability from your site, the formula for calculating bandwidth is fairly straightforward:

Average Daily Visitors x Average Page Views x Average Page Size x 31 x Fudge Factor

If you intend to allow people to download files from your site, your bandwidth calculation should be:

[(Average Daily Visitors x Average Page Views x Average Page Size) +
(Average Daily File Downloads x Average File Size)] x 31 x Fudge Factor

Let us examine each item in the formula:

Average Daily Visitors - The number of people you expect to visit your site, on average, each day. Depending upon how you market your site, this number could be from 1 to 1,000,000.

Average Page Views - On average, the number of web pages you expect a person to view. If you have 50 web pages in your web site, an average person may only view 5 of those pages each time they visit.

Average Page Size - The average size of your web pages, in Kilobytes (KB). If you have already designed your site, you can calculate this directly.

Average Daily File Downloads - The number of downloads you expect to occur on your site. This is a function of the numbers of visitors and how many times a visitor downloads a file, on average, each day.

Average File Size - Average file size of files that are downloadable from your site. Similar to your web pages, if you already know which files can be downloaded, you can calculate this directly.

Fudge Factor - A number greater than 1. Using 1.5 would be safe, which assumes that your estimate is off by 50%. However, if you were very unsure, you could use 2 or 3 to ensure that your bandwidth requirements are more than met.

Usually, hosting plans offer bandwidth in terms of Gigabytes (GB) per month. This is why our formula takes daily averages and multiplies them by 31.

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Summary:

Most personal or small business sites will not need more than 1GB of bandwidth per month. If you have a web site that is composed of static web pages and you expect little traffic to your site on a daily basis, go with a low bandwidth plan. If you go over the amount of bandwidth allocated in your plan, your hosting company could charge you over usage fees, so if you think the traffic to your site will be significant, you may want to go through the calculations above to estimate the amount of bandwidth required in a hosting plan.

Hacking Tips about Debug: Learn how to crack windows, programs ect manually


Debug is a program that comes with modern versions of DOS (I do not know when I started shipping out with DOS). Anyway, all Windows users should have it already.

It's a great tool for debuging programs, unassembling and cracking, and reading "hidden" memory areas like the boot sector, and much more.

The following was copied from an assembly tutorial who's author we cannot credit, because we have no idea who he is.

Get into DOS and type "debug", you will get a prompt like this:
-

now type "?", you should get the following response:
assemble A [address]
compare C range address
dump D [range]
enter E address [list]
fill F range list
go G [=address] [addresses]
hex H value1 value2
input I port
load L [address] [drive] [firstsector] [number]
move M range address
name N [pathname] [arglist]
output O port byte
proceed P [=address] [number]
quit Q
register R [register]
search S range list
trace T [=address] [value]
unassemble U [range]
write W [address] [drive] [firstsector] [number]
allocate expanded memory XA [#pages]
deallocate expanded memory XD [handle]
map expanded memory pages XM [Lpage] [Ppage] [handle]
display expanded memory status XS

Lets go through each of these commands:
Assemble:

-a
107A:0100

At this point you can start assembling some programs, just like using a assembler. However the debug assembler is very limited as you will probably notice. Lets try to enter a simple program:

-a
107A:0100 MOV AH,02
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
-g
A

Program terminated normally

That's the same program we did at the end of the previous chapter. Notice how you run the program you just entered with "g", and also notice how the set-up part is not there? That's because debug is just too limited to support that.
Another thing you can do with assemble is specify the address at which you want to start, by default this is 0100 since that's where all .COM files start.
Compare:

Compare takes 2 block of memory and displays them side by side, byte for byte. Lets do an example. Quite out of debug if you haven't already using "q". Now type "debug c:\command.com"

-c 0100 l 8 0200
10A3:0100 7A 06 10A3:0200

This command compared offset 0100 with 0200 for a length of 8 bytes. Debug responded with the location that was DIFFERENT. If 2 locations were the same, debug would just omit them, if all are the same debug would simply return to the prompt without any response.
Dump:

Dump will dump a specified memory segment. To test it, code that assembly program again:

C:\>debug
-a
107A:0100 MOV AH,02
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
-d 0100 l 8
107A:0100 B4 02 B2 41 CD 21 CD 20
...A.!.

The "B4 02 B2 41 CD 21 CD 20" is the program you just made in machine language.

B4 02 = MOV AH,02
B2 41 = MOV DL,41
CD 21 = INT 21
CD 20 = INT 20

The "...A.!." part is your program in ASCII. The "." represent non-printable characters. Notice the A in there.
Enter:

This is one of the hard commands. With it you can enter/change certain memory areas. Lets change our program so that it prints a B instead of an A.
-e 0103 <-- edit program at segment 0103
107A:0103 41.42 <-- change 41 to 42
-g
B

Program terminated normally
-
Wasn't that amazing?
Fill:

This command is fairly useless, but who knows....
It fills the specified amount of memory with the specified data. Lets for example clear out all memory from segment 0100 to 0108, which happens to be our program.
-f 0100 l 8 0 <-- file offset 0100 for a length of 8 bytes with 0
-d 0100 l 8 <-- verify that it worked
107A:0100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 .......
Yep, it worked.
Go:

So far we used go (g) to start the program we just created. But Go can be used for much more. For example, lets say we want to execute a program at 107B:0100:
-r CS <-- set the CS register to point to 107B
CS 107A
:107B
-g =100

You can also set breakpoints.
-a <-- enter our original program so we have something
107A:0100 MOV AH,02 to work with
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
-g 102 <-- set up a break point at 107A:0102

At this point the program will stop, display all registers and the current instruction.
Hex:

This can be very useful. It subtracts and adds two hexadecimal values:
-h 2 1
0003 0001 <-- 2h + 1+ = 3h and 2h - 1h = 1h

This is very useful for calculating a programs length, as you will see later.
Input:

This is one of the more advanced commands, and I decided not to talk about it too much for now. It will read a byte of data from any of your computers I/O ports (keyboard, mouse, printer, etc).

-i 3FD
60
-

Your data may be different.
In case you want to know, 3FD is Com port 1, also known as First Asynchronous Adapter.
Load:

This command has 2 formats. It can be used to load the filename specified with the name command (n), or it can load a specific sector.

-n c:\command.com
-l

This will load command.com into debug. When a valid program is loaded all registers will be set up and ready to execute the program.
The other method is a bit more complicated, but potential also more usefull. The syntax is

L <address> <drive letter/> <sector> <amount to load>
-l 100 2 10 20

This will load starting at offset 0100 from drive C (0 = A, 1 = B, 2 = C, etc), sector 10h for 20h sectors. This can be useful for recovering files you deleted.
Move:

Move takes a byte from the starting address and moves it to the destination address. This is very good to temporary move data into a free area, than manipulate it without having to worry about affecting the original program. It is especially useful if used in conjunction with the r command to which I will get later. Lets try an example:
-a <-- enter our original program so we have something
107A:0100 MOV AH,02 to work with
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
-m 107A:0100 L 8 107B:0100 <-- more 8 bytes starting from 107A:0100 into 107B:0100
-e 107B:0103 <-- edit 107B:0103
107B:0103 41.42 <-- and change it 42 (
-d 107A:0100 L 8 <-- make sure it worked
107A:0100 B4 02 B2 41 CD 21 CD 20 ...A.!.
-d 107B:0100 L 8
107A:0100 B4 02 B2 42 CD 21 CD 20 ...B.!.
-m 107B:0100 L 8 107A:0100 <-- restore the original program since we like the changes.
Name:

This will set debug up with a filename to use for I/O commands. You have to include the file extension, and you may use addition commands:

-n c:\command.com
Output:

Exactly what you think it is. Output sends stuff to an I/O port. If you have an external modem with those cool lights on it, you can test this out. Find out what port your modem is on and use the corresponding hex number below:

Com 1 = 3F8 - 3FF (3DF for mine)
Com 2 = 2F8 - 2FF
Com 3 = ??? - ??? (if someone knows, please let me know)

Now turn on the DTA (Data Terminal Ready) bit by sending 01h to it:
-o XXX 1 <-- XXX is the com port in hex

As soon as you hit enter, take a look at your modem, you should see a light light up. You can have even more fun with the output command. Say someone put one of those BIOS passwords on "your" computer. Usually you'd have to take out the battery to get rid of it, but not anymore:

MI/AWARD BIOS
-o 70 17
-o 71 17

QPHOENIX BIOS
-o 70 FF
-o 71 17

QGENERIC
-o 70 2E
-o 71 FF

These commands will clear the BIOS memory, thus disabling the password.
Proceed:

Proceeds in the execution of a program, usually used together withy Trace, which I will cover later. Like the go command, you can specify an address from which to start

using =address
-p 2

Debug will respond with the registers and the current command to be executed.
Quite:

This has got to be the most advanced feature of debug, it exits debug!

-q
Register:

This command can be used to display the current value of all registers, or to manually set them. This is very useful for writing files as you will see later on.

-r AX
AX: 011B
:5
-
Search:

Another very useful command. It is used to find the occurrence of a specific byte, or series of bytes in a segment. The data to search for can by either characters, or a hex value. Hex values are entered with a space or comma in between them, and characters are enclosed with quotes (single or double). You can also search for hex and characters with the same string:
-n c:\command.com <-- load command.com so we have some data to search in
-l
-s 0 l 0 "MS-DOS" <-- search entire memory block for "MS-DOS"
10A3:39E9 <-- found the string in 10A3:39E9

NOTE: the search is case sensitive!
Trace:

This is a truly great feature of debug. It will trace through a program one instruction at a time, displaying the instruction and registers after each. Like the go command you can specify where to start executing from, and for how long.
-a <-- yes, this thing again
107A:0100 MOV AH,02
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
-t =0100 8

If you leave out the amount of instructions that you want to trace, you can use the proceed (p) to continue the execution as long as you want.
Unassemble:

Unassembles a block of code. Great for debugging (and cracking)
-u 100 L 8 <-- unassembles 8 bytes starting at offset 100
107A:0100 MOV AH,02 <-- debut's response
107A:0102 MOV DL,41
107A:0104 INT 21
107A:0106 INT 20
Write:

This command works very similar to Load. It also has 2 ways it can operate: using name, and by specifying an exact location. Refer to back to Load for more information.

NOTE: The register CX must be set the file size in order to write!
NOTE: Write will not write .EXE or .HEX files.[SIZE=7][SIZE=14]

Hacking Tips about HACKING UNIX for beginners

                                                          Hacking Tips about HACKING UNIX for beginners                        :


  In the following file, all references made to the name Unix, may also be substituted to the Xenix operating system.

  Brief history:  Back in the early sixties, during the development of third generation computers at MIT, a group of programmers studying the potential of computers, discovered their ability of performing two or more tasks simultaneously.  Bell Labs, taking notice of this discovery, provided funds for their developmental scientists to investigate into this new frontier.  After about 2 years of developmental research, they produced an operating system they called "Unix".

  Sixties to Current:  During this time Bell Systems installed the Unix system to provide their computer operators with the ability to multitask so that they could become more productive, and efficient.  One of the s ystems they put on the Unix system was called "Elmos".  Through Elmos many tasks (i.e.  billing,and installation records) could be done by many people using the same mainframe.

  Note:  Cosmos is accessed through the Elmos system.

  Current:  Today, with the development of micro computers, such multitaskingcan be achieved by a scaled down version of Unix (but just as powerful).Microsoft,seeing this development, opted to develop their own Unix like system for the IBM line of PC/XT's.  Their result they called Xenix (pronounced zee-nicks).  Both Unix and Xenix can be easily installed on IBM PC's and offer the same functions (just 2 different vendors).

  Note:  Due to the many different versions of Unix (Berkley Unix, Bell System III, and System V the most popular) many commands following may/may not work.  I have written them in System V routines.  Unix/Xenix operating systems will be considered identical systems below.

  How to tell if/if not you are on a Unix system:  Unix systems are quite common systems across the country.  Their security appears as such:

Login;     (or login;)
password:

  When hacking on a Unix system it is best to use lowercase because the Unix system commands are all done in lower- case.

  Login; is a 1-8 character field.  It is usually the name (i.e.  joe or fred) of the user, or initials (i.e.  j.jones or f.wilson).  Hints for login names can be found trashing the location of the dial-up (use your CN/A to find where the computer is).

  Password:  is a 1-8 character password assigned by the sysop or chosen by the user.

      Common default logins
   --------------------------

   login;       Password:

   root         root,system,etc..
   sys          sys,system
   daemon       daemon
   uucp         uucp
   tty          tty
   test         test
   unix         unix
   bin          bin
   adm          adm
   who          who
   learn        learn
   uuhost       uuhost
   nuucp        nuucp

  If you guess a login name and you are not asked for a password, and have accessed to the system, then you have what is known as a non-gifted account.  If you guess a correct login and pass- word, then you have a user account.  And, if you guess the root password, then you have a "super-user" account.  All Unix
systems have the following installed to their system:  root, sys, bin, daemon, uucp, adm

  Once you are in the system, you will get a prompt.  Common prompts are:


$

%

#


  But can be just about anything the sysop or user wants it to be.

  Things to do when you are in:  Some of the commands that you may want to try follow below:

  who is on (shows who is currently logged on the system.)
write name (name is the person you wish to chat with)
To exit chat mode try ctrl-D.
EOT=End of Transfer.
 ls -a (list all files in current directory.)
du -a (checks amount of memory your files use;disk usage)
cd\name (name is the name of the sub-directory you choose)
cd\ (brings your home directory to current use)
cat name (name is a filename either a program or documentation your username has written)

  Most Unix programs are written in the C language or Pascal since Unix is a programmers' environment.

  One of the first things done on the system is print up or capture (in a buffer) the file containing all user names and accounts.  This can be done by doing the following command:



cat /etc/passwd



  If you are successful you will a list of all accounts on the system.  It should look like this:

root:hvnsdcf:0:0:root dir:/:
joe:majdnfd:1:1:Joe Cool:/bin:/bin/joe
hal::1:2:Hal Smith:/bin:/bin/hal

  The "root" line tells the following info :

login name=root
hvnsdcf   = encrypted password
0         = user group number
0         = user number
root dir  = name of user
/         = root directory

  In the Joe login, the last part "/bin/joe " tells us which directory is his home directory (joe) is.

  In the "hal" example the login name is followed by 2 colons, that means that there is no password needed to get in using his name.

Web hosting   Conclusion:  I hope that this file will help other novice Unix hackers obtain access to the Unix/Xenix systems that they may find.  There is still wide growth in the future of Unix, so I hope users will not abuse any systems (Unix or any others) that they may happen across on their journey across the electronic highways of America.  There is much more to be learned about the Unix system that I have not covered.  They may be found by buying a book on the Unix System (how I learned) or in the future I may write a part II to this........

Hacking Tips about IP ADDRESSING and its STRUCTURE


IP ADDRESS STRUCTURE(Note: the terms multicast address and MSB are explained at the end.):


Every station on a PSN (packet switched network) that is based on the TCP/IP protocol (your computer is one, for example. Yes, we're referring to a host that is connected to the net) must have an IP address, so it can be identified, and information can be relayed and routed to it in an orderly fashion.


An IP address consists of a 32 bit logical address. The address is divided into two fields:

1) The network address: Assigned by InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center). In fact most ISPs (internet service providers) purchase a number of addresses and assign them individually.

2) The host address: An address that identifies the single nodes throughout the network. It can be assigned
by the network manager, by using protocols for it such as DHCP, or the workstation itself.


The IP networking protocol is a logically routed protocol, meaning that address 192.43.54.2
will be on the same physical wire as address 192.43.54.3 (of course this is not always true. It depends on the subnet mask of the network, but all of that can fill a text of its own)


IP address structure:


       ---.---.---.---

          ^             ^
           |             |
 network    |    host

Every " --- " = 8 bits.
The first bits ===> network address
The last bits  ===> host address.
with 8 bits you can present from 0-255 . (binary=(2 to the power of 8)-1)

Example:
11000010.01011010.00011111.01001010 (binary)
194.90.31.74 (decimal)
IP address CLASSES :
We can classify IP addreses to 5 groups. You can distinguish them by comparing the "High Order" bits (the first four bits on the
left of the address):


type  | model  | target | MSB |addr.range    |bit number| max.stations|
     |        | groups |     |              |net./hosts|             |
------|--------|--------|-----|--------------|----------|-------------|
 A   |N.h.h.h | ALL    |  0  | 1.0.0.0      |   24/7   | 16,777,214  |
     |        | ACCEPT |     |    to        |          |             |
     |        | HUGE   |     | 127.0.0.0    |          |             |
     |        | CORPS  |     |              |          |             |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
     |N.N.h.h | TO ALL | 10  | 128.1.00     | 16/14    | 65,543      |
 B   |        | LARGE  |     |    to        |          |             |
     |        | CORPS  |     | 191.254.00   |          |             |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
     |N.N.N.h |TO ALOT | 110 | 192.0.1.0    | 8/22     |  254        |
 C   |        |OF      |     |    to        |          |             |
     |        |SMALL   |     | 223.225.254  |          |             |
     |        |CORPS   |     |              |          |             |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
D    | NONE   |MULTI-CA|1110 | 224.0.0.0     | NOT FOR |   UNKNOWN   |
     |        |ST ADDR.|     |    to         | USUAL   |             |
     |        |RFC-1112|     |239.255.255.255| USE     |             |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
E    | NOT FOR|EXPERIME|1,1,1,1| 240.0.0.0     |NOT FOR|  NOT FOR USE|
     |  USE   |NTAL    |       |   to          |USE    |             |
     |        |ADDR.   |       |254.255.255.255|       |             |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------


N=NETWORK , h=HOST .



Notice the address range 127.X.X.X.

These addresses are assigned to internal use to the network device, and are used as an application tool only. For example: 127.0.0.1, the most common one, is called the loopback address - everything sent here goes directly back to you, without even traveling out on the wire. Also, some IPs are reserved for VPNs - Virtual Private Networks. These are local area networks over wide area networks that use the Internet Protocol to
communicate, and each computer inside the network is assigned with an IP address. So, suppose a certain computer wants to send a data packet to another host on the network with the IP 'x', but there's also another host on the Internet that has the same IP - what happens now? So this is why you cannot use these and other forms of reserved IPs on the Internet.

EXTRA:

Distinguishing different groups:

You have to compare the first byte on the left in the address as follows:


Type |    First byte  | MSB
         |    in decimal  |
----------------------------
  A    | 1-127          | 0
----------------------------
  B    | 128-191        | 10
----------------------------
  C    | 192-223        | 110
----------------------------
  D    | 224-239        | 1110
----------------------------
  E    | 240-254        | 1111
----------------------------


NOTES: Yes, we know, we've left A LOT of things unexplained in this text. With time, we will write more tutorials to cover these and other subjects. So in the meantime, I suggest that you go to http://blacksun.box.sk, find the tutorials page and see if there's anything else that's interesting to you.
And remember - we also have a message board, so if you have any questions, feel free to post them there.


weird shit (newbie note):

1) Multicast: (copied from RFC 1112) IP multicasting is the transmission of an IP datagram to a "host
group", a set of zero or more hosts identified by a single IP destination address.  A multicast datagram is delivered to all members of its destination host group with the same "best-efforts" reliability as regular unicast IP datagrams, i.e., the datagram is not guaranteed to arrive intact at all members of the destination group or in the same order relative to other datagrams.

  The membership of a host group is dynamic; that is, hosts may join and leave groups at any time.  There is no restriction on the location or number of members in a host group.  A host may be a member of more than one group at a time.  A host need not be a member of a group to send datagrams to it.

  A host group may be permanent or transient.  A permanent group has a well-known, administratively assigned IP address.  It is the address, not the membership of the group, that is permanent; at any time a
permanent group may have any number of members, even zero.  Those IP multicast addresses that are not reserved for permanent groups are available for dynamic assignment to transient groups which exist only
as long as they have members.

Internetwork forwarding of IP multicast datagrams(ip packets)is handled by "multicast routers" which may be co-resident with, or separate from, internet gateways.  A host transmits an IP multicast datagram as a local network multicast which reaches all immediately-neighboring members of the destination host group.  If the datagram has an IP time-to-live greater than 1, the multicast router(s) attached to the local network take responsibility for forwarding it towards all other networks that have members of the destination group.  On those other member networks that are reachable within the IP time-to-live, an attached multicast router completes delivery by transmitting the datagram(ip packet) as a local multicast.

  *if you donot understand the above do not worry, it is complicated and dry
  but reread it and read it again get a dictionary if it helps.
  Hacking is not easy.

2) MSB: Most Significent Bit: In set numbers the first number on the left is the most important because it
holds the highest value as opposed to the LSB=> least significent bit, it always holds the the smallest value.
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